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Kamis, 30 April 2009
Sabtu, 07 Juni 2008
Core Stability
The aim of core stability training is to effectively recruit the trunk musculature and then learn to control the position of the lumbar spine during dynamic movements. The information presented on this page is based on an article written by Raphael Brandon that was first published in the Sports Injury Bulletin.
The Muscles
The deep trunk muscles, Transversus Abdominis (TA), multifidus (MF), Internal Oblique (IO), paraspinal, pelvic floor, are key to the active support of the lumbar spine. The co-contraction of these muscles produce forces via the "theracolumbar fascia" (TLF) and the "intra-abdominal pressure" (IAP) mechanism which stabilise the lumbar spine, and the paraspinal and MF muscles act directly to resist the forces acting on the lumbar spine.
It is not just the recruitment of these deep-trunk muscles, but how they are recruited that is important. Hodges and Richardson (1996) showed that the co-contraction of the TA and MF muscles occurred prior to any movement of the limbs. This suggests that these muscles anticipate dynamic forces that may act on the lumbar spine and stabilise the area prior to any movement. Hodges and Richardson showed that the timing of co-ordination of these muscles was very significant.
Wobble Cusion
Stand n Sit Wobble Cushion
The Stand n Sit disc (wobble cushion) is a versatile piece of equipment that combines the advantages of a Gym (Swiss) Ball, Sitting wedge, Wobble Board and Foot Massage.
Select this link to order your Stand n Sit Wobble Cushion.
Training
Having identified the key muscles and how they act, the next step is to establish how best to train these muscles. As with any type of strength and conditioning training, the training protocol for improving the function of the deep-trunk muscles must be specific to the task required. This specificity of training must take into account the type of contraction, the muscle fibre type and the anatomical position required. By definition, the deep-trunk muscles act as "stabilisers" and are not involved in producing movements, but instead involve static, or isometric, contractions. Furthermore, they must act as stabilisers continuously throughout everyday activities as well as fitness and sport activities, and so require very good endurance of low-level forces. These muscles do not need to be very strong, but they must be correctly co-ordinated and capable of working continuously. In addition, we want these stabiliser muscles to act by holding the lumbar spine in the neutral position, which is the correct alignment of the pelvis that allows for the natural 'S' curve of the spine. These characteristics underpin the following deep-trunk muscle training program.
Wobble Board
Wobble balance board
Excellent value 40cm adjustable plastic wobble balance board. Lightweight and can be easily adjusted by screwing out the base.
Select this link to order your Wobble balance board.
The basics
Core-stability training begins with learning to co-contract the TA and MF muscles effectively as this has been identified as key to the lumbar-support mechanism. To perform the TA and MF co-contraction, you must perform the "abdominal hollowing" technique with the spine in the neutral position.
To do this use the following guidelines:
* Start by lying on your back with knees bent
* Your lumbar spine should be neither arched up nor flattened against the floor, but aligned normally with a small gap between the floor and your back. This is the "neutral" lumbar position you should learn to achieve
* Breathe in deeply and relax all your stomach muscles
* Breathe out and, as you do so, draw your lower abdomen inwards as if your belly button is going back towards the floor. Pilates teachers describe this as "zipping up", as if you are fastening up a tight pair of jeans
* Hold the contraction for 10 seconds and stay relaxed, allowing yourself to breathe in and out as you hold the tension in your lower stomach area
* Repeat 5-10 times
It is vital that you perform this abdominal hollowing exercise correctly otherwise you will not recruit the TA and MF effectively. Bear in mind the following points:
* Do not let the whole stomach tense up or your upper abdominals bulge outwards, as this means you have cheated by using the large rectus abdominus muscle (the six-pack) instead of TA
* Do not brace your TA muscle too hard; just a gentle contraction is enough. Remember it's endurance not max strength your are trying to improve
* Do not tilt your pelvis nor flatten your back, as this means you have lost the neutral position you are trying to learn to stabilise
* Do not hold your breath, as this means you are not relaxed. You must learn to breathe normally and maintain the co-contraction of TA and MF
* Use your fingers for biofeedback on either side of your lower abdomen to feel the tension in the TA muscle.
Once you have mastered the abdominal hollowing lying on your back, practice it lying on your front, four-point kneeling, sitting and standing. In each position, get your lumbar spine into neutral before you perform the hollowing movement.
The next step
Having learned to recruit the TA and MF muscles correctly in various positions, which can take anything from one session to one month or more, it is time to move onto simple core stability exercises. These exercises may also involve the oblique muscles, other lumbar muscles and gluteals to assist the TA and MF in maintaining the lumbar spine in a stable neutral position.
Lying leg lift stabilisation
* Lying on your back with your knees bent
* Ensure your back is in neutral
* Place your hands on your hips for biofeedback
* Breathe in and relax
* Breathe out and, as you do so, perform the abdominal hollowing or zipping-up action
* Once you have established some TA tension, slowly slide your left leg out along the floor until it is straight and then slide it back
* Your back should not have moved, and your pelvis should not have tilted as you performed this action
* If your back or pelvis moved, you did not achieve the correct stability
* Repeat for the other side 10 times each leg
Variations include the same exercise with knee lifts up and knee drops out to the side. Again, the aim is to retain a stable lumbar spine in the neutral position as the legs move.
The waiter's bow
* Stand up with good posture, knees soft, lumbar spine in neutral, head up and shoulders back and relaxed
* Breathe in and relax
* Breathe out and as you do so perform the abdominal hollowing action
* Keeping the tension, slowly lean forward from the hips 20° and stop, like a waiter's bow, keeping your back completely straight and long as you lean
* Hold the lean position for 10 seconds - you will feel your TA and MF supporting you if you hold the correct position
* Keeping the tension and the alignment, slowly return to your start position
* Repeat 10 times
These exercises are two examples of learning how to keep the spine in neutral, using slow and controlled static contractions of the trunk stabiliser muscles. Notice how technique is vital and the aim is to build up the time you are able to maintain good stability.
Getting functional
The ultimate aim of core stability training is to ensure the deep trunk muscles are working correctly to control the lumbar spine during dynamic movements, e.g. lifting a heavy box or running. Therefore, it is important that once you have achieved proficiency of the simple core exercises, you must progress on to achieving stability during more functional movements. Try the following two exercises.
The lunge
* Stand with feet hip width apart in front of a mirror
* Ensure your lumbar spine is in neutral and your back is tall with your shoulders back and head up
* Lunge forward and bend your knee only halfway down
* Ensure that your front knee is in line with your toes and your back has remained upright with your lumbar spine in neutral and your hips level
* Push back up, initiating the movement by pushing down into the floor with your front foot
* The force from your legs should bring you back up quickly and easily to your start position
* Your back should have remained totally still and your hips level as you performed the push back
Many people wrongly initiate the up movement by pulling their heads and shoulders back first. This extends the lumbar spine, losing the neutral position. Others have problems keeping their pelvis level while performing the lunge. You must learn to use your deep trunk and gluteal muscles to hold your lumbar spine in neutral and pelvis level as you perform the movement up and down. The movement should only come from the leg muscles.
The Press up
* Start from your knees, even if this means it is easy for your upper body, to learn the correct technique
* Your hands should be slightly wider than your shoulders and your head must be in front of your hands
* Lift your hips so that there is a straight line from your knees through your pelvis and lower back, through your shoulders and all the way to your head
* Ensure your lumbar spine is in neutral, using a mirror or a partner/trainer to help you
* To maintain a neutral spine and a straight back during the exercise, the trunk muscles must provide active support
* Slowly lower down, bending your arms all the way to the floor. Keep your head still with your neck straight relative to your back
* Push up, initiating the movement by pressing down into the floor with your hands
Your back should remain straight and your lumbar spine in neutral throughout the exercise.
These two exercises enable you to learn core stability while performing dynamic movements. By reducing the resistance i.e. doing only half lunges and knee press ups, your are able to focus on the trunk stabilisers and achieving perfect technique rather than working the major muscle groups. The whole essence of core stability training is quality of movement and relaxation. The more you practice, the easier it becomes until you can control your lumbar stability at all times and during complex movements.
The Muscles
The deep trunk muscles, Transversus Abdominis (TA), multifidus (MF), Internal Oblique (IO), paraspinal, pelvic floor, are key to the active support of the lumbar spine. The co-contraction of these muscles produce forces via the "theracolumbar fascia" (TLF) and the "intra-abdominal pressure" (IAP) mechanism which stabilise the lumbar spine, and the paraspinal and MF muscles act directly to resist the forces acting on the lumbar spine.
It is not just the recruitment of these deep-trunk muscles, but how they are recruited that is important. Hodges and Richardson (1996) showed that the co-contraction of the TA and MF muscles occurred prior to any movement of the limbs. This suggests that these muscles anticipate dynamic forces that may act on the lumbar spine and stabilise the area prior to any movement. Hodges and Richardson showed that the timing of co-ordination of these muscles was very significant.
Wobble Cusion
Stand n Sit Wobble Cushion
The Stand n Sit disc (wobble cushion) is a versatile piece of equipment that combines the advantages of a Gym (Swiss) Ball, Sitting wedge, Wobble Board and Foot Massage.
Select this link to order your Stand n Sit Wobble Cushion.
Training
Having identified the key muscles and how they act, the next step is to establish how best to train these muscles. As with any type of strength and conditioning training, the training protocol for improving the function of the deep-trunk muscles must be specific to the task required. This specificity of training must take into account the type of contraction, the muscle fibre type and the anatomical position required. By definition, the deep-trunk muscles act as "stabilisers" and are not involved in producing movements, but instead involve static, or isometric, contractions. Furthermore, they must act as stabilisers continuously throughout everyday activities as well as fitness and sport activities, and so require very good endurance of low-level forces. These muscles do not need to be very strong, but they must be correctly co-ordinated and capable of working continuously. In addition, we want these stabiliser muscles to act by holding the lumbar spine in the neutral position, which is the correct alignment of the pelvis that allows for the natural 'S' curve of the spine. These characteristics underpin the following deep-trunk muscle training program.
Wobble Board
Wobble balance board
Excellent value 40cm adjustable plastic wobble balance board. Lightweight and can be easily adjusted by screwing out the base.
Select this link to order your Wobble balance board.
The basics
Core-stability training begins with learning to co-contract the TA and MF muscles effectively as this has been identified as key to the lumbar-support mechanism. To perform the TA and MF co-contraction, you must perform the "abdominal hollowing" technique with the spine in the neutral position.
To do this use the following guidelines:
* Start by lying on your back with knees bent
* Your lumbar spine should be neither arched up nor flattened against the floor, but aligned normally with a small gap between the floor and your back. This is the "neutral" lumbar position you should learn to achieve
* Breathe in deeply and relax all your stomach muscles
* Breathe out and, as you do so, draw your lower abdomen inwards as if your belly button is going back towards the floor. Pilates teachers describe this as "zipping up", as if you are fastening up a tight pair of jeans
* Hold the contraction for 10 seconds and stay relaxed, allowing yourself to breathe in and out as you hold the tension in your lower stomach area
* Repeat 5-10 times
It is vital that you perform this abdominal hollowing exercise correctly otherwise you will not recruit the TA and MF effectively. Bear in mind the following points:
* Do not let the whole stomach tense up or your upper abdominals bulge outwards, as this means you have cheated by using the large rectus abdominus muscle (the six-pack) instead of TA
* Do not brace your TA muscle too hard; just a gentle contraction is enough. Remember it's endurance not max strength your are trying to improve
* Do not tilt your pelvis nor flatten your back, as this means you have lost the neutral position you are trying to learn to stabilise
* Do not hold your breath, as this means you are not relaxed. You must learn to breathe normally and maintain the co-contraction of TA and MF
* Use your fingers for biofeedback on either side of your lower abdomen to feel the tension in the TA muscle.
Once you have mastered the abdominal hollowing lying on your back, practice it lying on your front, four-point kneeling, sitting and standing. In each position, get your lumbar spine into neutral before you perform the hollowing movement.
The next step
Having learned to recruit the TA and MF muscles correctly in various positions, which can take anything from one session to one month or more, it is time to move onto simple core stability exercises. These exercises may also involve the oblique muscles, other lumbar muscles and gluteals to assist the TA and MF in maintaining the lumbar spine in a stable neutral position.
Lying leg lift stabilisation
* Lying on your back with your knees bent
* Ensure your back is in neutral
* Place your hands on your hips for biofeedback
* Breathe in and relax
* Breathe out and, as you do so, perform the abdominal hollowing or zipping-up action
* Once you have established some TA tension, slowly slide your left leg out along the floor until it is straight and then slide it back
* Your back should not have moved, and your pelvis should not have tilted as you performed this action
* If your back or pelvis moved, you did not achieve the correct stability
* Repeat for the other side 10 times each leg
Variations include the same exercise with knee lifts up and knee drops out to the side. Again, the aim is to retain a stable lumbar spine in the neutral position as the legs move.
The waiter's bow
* Stand up with good posture, knees soft, lumbar spine in neutral, head up and shoulders back and relaxed
* Breathe in and relax
* Breathe out and as you do so perform the abdominal hollowing action
* Keeping the tension, slowly lean forward from the hips 20° and stop, like a waiter's bow, keeping your back completely straight and long as you lean
* Hold the lean position for 10 seconds - you will feel your TA and MF supporting you if you hold the correct position
* Keeping the tension and the alignment, slowly return to your start position
* Repeat 10 times
These exercises are two examples of learning how to keep the spine in neutral, using slow and controlled static contractions of the trunk stabiliser muscles. Notice how technique is vital and the aim is to build up the time you are able to maintain good stability.
Getting functional
The ultimate aim of core stability training is to ensure the deep trunk muscles are working correctly to control the lumbar spine during dynamic movements, e.g. lifting a heavy box or running. Therefore, it is important that once you have achieved proficiency of the simple core exercises, you must progress on to achieving stability during more functional movements. Try the following two exercises.
The lunge
* Stand with feet hip width apart in front of a mirror
* Ensure your lumbar spine is in neutral and your back is tall with your shoulders back and head up
* Lunge forward and bend your knee only halfway down
* Ensure that your front knee is in line with your toes and your back has remained upright with your lumbar spine in neutral and your hips level
* Push back up, initiating the movement by pushing down into the floor with your front foot
* The force from your legs should bring you back up quickly and easily to your start position
* Your back should have remained totally still and your hips level as you performed the push back
Many people wrongly initiate the up movement by pulling their heads and shoulders back first. This extends the lumbar spine, losing the neutral position. Others have problems keeping their pelvis level while performing the lunge. You must learn to use your deep trunk and gluteal muscles to hold your lumbar spine in neutral and pelvis level as you perform the movement up and down. The movement should only come from the leg muscles.
The Press up
* Start from your knees, even if this means it is easy for your upper body, to learn the correct technique
* Your hands should be slightly wider than your shoulders and your head must be in front of your hands
* Lift your hips so that there is a straight line from your knees through your pelvis and lower back, through your shoulders and all the way to your head
* Ensure your lumbar spine is in neutral, using a mirror or a partner/trainer to help you
* To maintain a neutral spine and a straight back during the exercise, the trunk muscles must provide active support
* Slowly lower down, bending your arms all the way to the floor. Keep your head still with your neck straight relative to your back
* Push up, initiating the movement by pressing down into the floor with your hands
Your back should remain straight and your lumbar spine in neutral throughout the exercise.
These two exercises enable you to learn core stability while performing dynamic movements. By reducing the resistance i.e. doing only half lunges and knee press ups, your are able to focus on the trunk stabilisers and achieving perfect technique rather than working the major muscle groups. The whole essence of core stability training is quality of movement and relaxation. The more you practice, the easier it becomes until you can control your lumbar stability at all times and during complex movements.
Endurance Training
What is the objective of endurance training?
The objective of endurance training is to develop the energy production systems to meet the demands of the event.
What are the energy production systems?
In the human body, food energy is used to manufacture adenosine triphosphate (ATP) the chemical compound that supplies energy for muscular contraction. Since ATP is in very low concentrations in the muscle, and since it decreases only to a minor extent, even in the most intense voluntary contraction, tightly controlled energy pathways exist for the continual regeneration of ATP as muscular contraction continues. For continuous exercise, ATP must be re-synthesised at the same rate as it is utilised.
What types of endurance are there?
The types of endurance are aerobic endurance, anaerobic endurance, speed endurance and strength endurance. A sound basis of aerobic endurance is fundamental for all events.
Work conducted by Paul B Gastin, "Energy system interaction and relative contribution during maximal exercise" Sports Med 2001: 31(10); 725-741, provides estimates of anaerobic and aerobic energy contribution during selected periods of maximal exercise (95% effort).
Duration % Aerobic % Anaerobic
0-10 seconds 6 94
0-15 seconds 12 88
0-20 seconds 18 82
0-30 seconds 27 73
0-45 seconds 37 63
0-60 seconds 45 55
0-75 seconds 51 48
0-90 seconds 56 44
0-120 seconds 63 37
0-180 seconds 73 27
0-240 seconds 79 21
Aerobic Endurance
Aerobic means 'with oxygen'. During aerobic work, the body is working at a level that the demands for oxygen and fuel can be meet by the body's intake. The only waste products formed are carbon dioxide and water. These are removed as sweat and by breathing out.
Aerobic endurance can be sub-divided as follows:
* Short aerobic - 2 minutes to 8 minutes (lactic/aerobic)
* Medium aerobic - 8 minutes to 30 minutes (mainly aerobic)
* Long aerobic - 30 minutes + (aerobic)
Aerobic endurance is developed using continuous and interval running.
* Continuous duration runs to improve maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max)
* Interval training to improve the heart as a muscular pump
Aerobic threshold
The aerobic threshold, point at which anaerobic energy pathways start to operate, is around 65% of maximum heart rate. This is approximately 40 beats lower than the anaerobic threshold.
Anaerobic endurance
Anaerobic means 'without oxygen'. During anaerobic work, involving maximum effort, the body is working so hard that the demands for oxygen and fuel exceed the rate of supply and the muscles have to rely on the stored reserves of fuel. The muscles, being starved of oxygen, take the body into a state known as oxygen debt. The body's stored fuel soon runs out and activity ceases - painfully. This point is often measured as the lactic threshold or anaerobic threshold or onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA). Activity will not be resumed until the lactic acid is removed and the oxygen debt repaid. Fortunately, the body can resume limited activity after even only a small proportion of the oxygen debt has been repaid. Since lactic acid is produced, the correct term for this pathway is lactic anaerobic energy pathway.
The alactic anaerobic pathway is the one in which the body is working anaerobically but without the production of lactic acid. This pathway can exist only so long as the fuel actually stored in the muscle lasts, approximately 4 seconds at maximum effort.
Anaerobic endurance can be sub-divided as follows:
* Short anaerobic - less than 25 seconds (mainly alactic)
* Medium anaerobic - 25 seconds to 60 seconds (mainly lactic)
* Long anaerobic - 60 seconds to 120 seconds (lactic +aerobic)
Anaerobic endurance can be developed by using repetition methods of relatively high intensity work with limited recovery.
Anaerobic threshold
The anaerobic threshold, the point at which lactic acid starts to accumulates in the muscles, is considered to be somewhere between 85% and 90% of your maximum heart rate. This is approximately 40 beats higher than the aerobic threshold. Your anaerobic threshold can be determined with anaerobic threshold testing.
Speed endurance
Speed endurance is used to develop the co-ordination of muscle contraction. Repetition methods are used with a high number of sets, low number of repetitions per set and intensity greater than 85% with distances covered from 60% to 120% of racing distance. Competition and time trials can be used in the development of speed endurance.
Strength endurance
Strength endurance is used to develop the athlete's capacity to maintain the quality of their muscles' contractile force. All athletes need to develop a basic level of strength endurance. Examples of activities to develop strength endurance are - circuit training, weight training, hill running, harness running, Fartlek etc.
Effect on the heart
As an endurance athlete, you will develop an athlete's heart which is very different to the non athlete's heart. You will have:
* Bradycardia - Low resting pulse rate of under 50 bpm
* ECG shows ventricular hypertrophy (thickening of the heart muscle wall)
* X-ray reveals an enlarged heart
* Blood tests shows raised muscle enzymes
The above for the average person (non athlete) indicate a probable heart block, hypertension, heart failure, a recent myocardial infarct or cardiomyopathy. Should you need to go into hospital or see your doctor, you should inform them that you are an endurance athlete.
The objective of endurance training is to develop the energy production systems to meet the demands of the event.
What are the energy production systems?
In the human body, food energy is used to manufacture adenosine triphosphate (ATP) the chemical compound that supplies energy for muscular contraction. Since ATP is in very low concentrations in the muscle, and since it decreases only to a minor extent, even in the most intense voluntary contraction, tightly controlled energy pathways exist for the continual regeneration of ATP as muscular contraction continues. For continuous exercise, ATP must be re-synthesised at the same rate as it is utilised.
What types of endurance are there?
The types of endurance are aerobic endurance, anaerobic endurance, speed endurance and strength endurance. A sound basis of aerobic endurance is fundamental for all events.
Work conducted by Paul B Gastin, "Energy system interaction and relative contribution during maximal exercise" Sports Med 2001: 31(10); 725-741, provides estimates of anaerobic and aerobic energy contribution during selected periods of maximal exercise (95% effort).
Duration % Aerobic % Anaerobic
0-10 seconds 6 94
0-15 seconds 12 88
0-20 seconds 18 82
0-30 seconds 27 73
0-45 seconds 37 63
0-60 seconds 45 55
0-75 seconds 51 48
0-90 seconds 56 44
0-120 seconds 63 37
0-180 seconds 73 27
0-240 seconds 79 21
Aerobic Endurance
Aerobic means 'with oxygen'. During aerobic work, the body is working at a level that the demands for oxygen and fuel can be meet by the body's intake. The only waste products formed are carbon dioxide and water. These are removed as sweat and by breathing out.
Aerobic endurance can be sub-divided as follows:
* Short aerobic - 2 minutes to 8 minutes (lactic/aerobic)
* Medium aerobic - 8 minutes to 30 minutes (mainly aerobic)
* Long aerobic - 30 minutes + (aerobic)
Aerobic endurance is developed using continuous and interval running.
* Continuous duration runs to improve maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max)
* Interval training to improve the heart as a muscular pump
Aerobic threshold
The aerobic threshold, point at which anaerobic energy pathways start to operate, is around 65% of maximum heart rate. This is approximately 40 beats lower than the anaerobic threshold.
Anaerobic endurance
Anaerobic means 'without oxygen'. During anaerobic work, involving maximum effort, the body is working so hard that the demands for oxygen and fuel exceed the rate of supply and the muscles have to rely on the stored reserves of fuel. The muscles, being starved of oxygen, take the body into a state known as oxygen debt. The body's stored fuel soon runs out and activity ceases - painfully. This point is often measured as the lactic threshold or anaerobic threshold or onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA). Activity will not be resumed until the lactic acid is removed and the oxygen debt repaid. Fortunately, the body can resume limited activity after even only a small proportion of the oxygen debt has been repaid. Since lactic acid is produced, the correct term for this pathway is lactic anaerobic energy pathway.
The alactic anaerobic pathway is the one in which the body is working anaerobically but without the production of lactic acid. This pathway can exist only so long as the fuel actually stored in the muscle lasts, approximately 4 seconds at maximum effort.
Anaerobic endurance can be sub-divided as follows:
* Short anaerobic - less than 25 seconds (mainly alactic)
* Medium anaerobic - 25 seconds to 60 seconds (mainly lactic)
* Long anaerobic - 60 seconds to 120 seconds (lactic +aerobic)
Anaerobic endurance can be developed by using repetition methods of relatively high intensity work with limited recovery.
Anaerobic threshold
The anaerobic threshold, the point at which lactic acid starts to accumulates in the muscles, is considered to be somewhere between 85% and 90% of your maximum heart rate. This is approximately 40 beats higher than the aerobic threshold. Your anaerobic threshold can be determined with anaerobic threshold testing.
Speed endurance
Speed endurance is used to develop the co-ordination of muscle contraction. Repetition methods are used with a high number of sets, low number of repetitions per set and intensity greater than 85% with distances covered from 60% to 120% of racing distance. Competition and time trials can be used in the development of speed endurance.
Strength endurance
Strength endurance is used to develop the athlete's capacity to maintain the quality of their muscles' contractile force. All athletes need to develop a basic level of strength endurance. Examples of activities to develop strength endurance are - circuit training, weight training, hill running, harness running, Fartlek etc.
Effect on the heart
As an endurance athlete, you will develop an athlete's heart which is very different to the non athlete's heart. You will have:
* Bradycardia - Low resting pulse rate of under 50 bpm
* ECG shows ventricular hypertrophy (thickening of the heart muscle wall)
* X-ray reveals an enlarged heart
* Blood tests shows raised muscle enzymes
The above for the average person (non athlete) indicate a probable heart block, hypertension, heart failure, a recent myocardial infarct or cardiomyopathy. Should you need to go into hospital or see your doctor, you should inform them that you are an endurance athlete.
Performance Evaluation Tests
Performance is an assessment of how well a task is executed and the success of a training program is largely dependent upon satisfying the performance aims associated with it.
How can performance be monitored?
Testing and measurement are the means of collecting information upon which subsequent performance evaluations and decisions are made.
What is the evaluation process?
The whole measurement/evaluation process is a six stage, cyclic affair, involving:
* The selection of characteristics to be measured
* The selection of a suitable method of measuring
* The collection of that data
* The analysis of the collected data
* The making of decisions
* The implementation of those decisions
All of the above stages should be completed with the athlete - especially the analysis of the collected data and making decision of appropriate way forward.
What are the requirements of a test?
In constructing tests it is important to make sure that they really measure the factors required to be tested, and are thus objective rather than subjective. In doing so all tests should therefore be specific (designed to assess an athlete's fitness for the activity in question), valid (test what they purpose to test), reliable (capable of consistent repetition) and objective (produce a consistent result irrespective of the tester).
In conducting tests the following points should be considered:
* Each test should measure ONE factor only
* The test should not require any technical competence on the part of the athlete (unless it is being used to assess technique)
* Care should be taken to make sure that the athlete understands exactly what is required of him/her, what is being measured and why
* The test procedure should be strictly standardised in terms of administration, organisation and environmental conditions
What are the benefits of testing?
The results from tests can be used to:
* predict future performance
* indicate weaknesses
* measure improvement
* enable the coach to assess the success of his training program
* place the athlete in appropriate training group
* motivate the athlete
Tests additionally break up, and add variety to, the training program. They can be used to satisfy the athlete's competitive urge out of season. Since they demand maximum effort of the athlete, they are useful at times as a training unit in their own right.
What factors may influence test results?
The following factors may have an impact on the results of a test (test reliability):
* The ambient temperature, noise level and humidity
* The amount of sleep the athlete had prior to testing
* The athlete's emotional state
* Medication the athlete may be taking
* The time of day
* The athlete's caffeine intake
* The time since the athlete's last meal
* The test environment - surface (track, grass, road, gym)
* The athlete's prior test knowledge/experience
* Accuracy of measurements (times, distances etc.)
* Is the athlete actually applying maximum effort in maximal tests
* Inappropriate warm up
* People present
* The personality, knowledge and skill of the tester
Why record information?
For the coach and athlete it is important to monitor the program of work, to maintain progression in terms of the volume of work and its intensity. Both coach and athlete must keep their own training records. A training diary can give an enormous amount of information about what has happened in the past and how training has gone in the past. When planning future training cycles, information of this kind is invaluable.
What should be recorded?
The information to be recorded falls into two broad categories: -
* The day-to-day information from training
o State of the athlete (health, composure)
o Physiological data (body weight, resting heart rate, etc.)
o The training unit (speed, speed endurance, strength, technique)
o The training load (the number of miles, the number of sets and repetitions, the number of attempts)
o The training intensity (kilograms, percentage of maximum, percentage of VO2)
o The prevailing conditions (wet, windy, hot etc.)
o The response to training (the assignments completed, the resultant heart rate recovery, felt tired, etc.)
* Information that measures status. This can take the form of a test. If the test is repeated throughout the program, it can then be used as a measure of progress within the training discipline. Examples of such tests are:
o Time trials - speed, speed endurance, endurance
o Muscular endurance - chins, push ups, dips
o Strength maximum - single repetitions, maximum repetitions
o Explosive strength - power bounding, vertical jump, overhead shot putt
o Mobility - objective measurements of the range of movement
o Event specific
Competition evaluation
Following competition, it is important that the coach and athlete get together as soon as possible in order to evaluate the athlete's performance. Elements to be considered are pre race preparations, focus and performance plans and achievement of these plans. An evaluation form is useful to help the athlete and coach conduct this review.
Maximal Tests
Maximal means the athlete works at maximum effort or tested to exhaustion. Examples of maximal anaerobic tests are the 30 metre acceleration test and the Wingate ANaerobic 30 cycle test. Examples of maximal aerobic tests are the Multistage Fitness Test or Bleep test and the Cooper VO2max test
Disadvantages of maximal tests are:
* difficulty in ensuring the subject is exerting maximum effort
* possible dangers of over exertion and injury
* dependent on the athlete's level of arousal
Submaximal Tests
Submaximal means the athlete works below maximum effort. In sub maximal tests, extrapolation is used to estimate maximum capacity. Examples of submaximal aerobic test are the PWC-170 test and the Queens College Step Test.
Disadvantages of submaximal tests are:
* depend on extrapolation being made to unknown maximum
* small measurement inaccuracies can result in large discrepancies as a result of the extrapolation
Normative data
Where normative data (average test results) is available, it is included on the appropriate evaluation test pages which are identified below.
Evaluation Test Groups
The 100 evaluation tests are grouped as follows:
* Aerobic Endurance - VO2 max (21)
* Anaerobic Endurance (2)
* Agility (8)
* Balance (2)
* Body Composition (5)
* Event Time Predictors (4)
* Fitness General (4)
* Flexibility (9)
* Psychology (2)
* Reaction Time (1)
* Strength - Core (1)
* Strength - Elastic (5)
* Strength - General (16)
* Speed and Power (18)
* Talent Evaluation (1)
* Tests for young athletes (1)
Evaluation Tests
Aerobic Endurance - VO2 max
* 2.4km Run Test
* Astrand Treadmill test - VO2max test running on a treadmill
* Astrand 6 minute Cycle test - Vo2 max test on a static bike
* Balke VO2max test - suitable for endurance sports
* Balke Incremental treadmill protocol test- VO2max test on a treadmill (male and female tests)
* Bruce Incremental treadmill protocol test- VO2max test on a treadmill (male and female tests)
* Cooper VO2max test - suitable for endurance sports
* Conconi test
* Critical Swim Speed - measure of a swimmers aerobic capacity
* Home Step Test - a step test you can conduct at home
* Harvard Step Test - measure of cardiovascular fitness
* Multistage Fitness Test or Bleep test - VO2 max test for endurance sports
* Queens College Step Test - VO2 max test
* Rockport Fitness walking test - VO2 max test
* Tecumseh Step Test - measure of cardiovascular fitness
* Treadmill VO2max test - VO2 max test
* VO2max from non-exercise data - VO2 max test
* VO2max from a one mile jog
* VO2max from a race result (time for a distance)
* VO2max Step Test
* Wheelchair VO2max Test
Anaerobic Endurance
* Cunningham and Faulkner Test
* RAST - Running-based Anaerobic Sprint Test
Agility
* 505 Agility Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Hexagonal Obstacle Agility Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Illinois agility run test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Lateral Change of Direction test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Quick Feet test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Shuttle Run Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* 'T' Drill test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Zig-Zag Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
Balance
* Standing Stork Test - balance test
* Standing Stork Test Blind- balance test
Body Composition
* Body Fat Percentage
* Body Mass Index (BMI)
* Muscle Fibre Test - Dr F. Hatfield
* Yuhasz skinfold test
* Body Fat Percentage using Girth Measurements
Event Time Predictors
* 400 metre predictor test - predicts an athlete's potential 400 metre time
* 1500 metre predictor test - predict an athlete's potential 1500 metre time
* 5km predictor test - predict an athlete's potential 5km time
* Kosmin predictor test - predict an athlete's potential 800 metre and 1500 metre time
Fitness General
* Medicine Ball Javelin Quadrathlon - fitness and strength test for Javelin throwers
* McCloy Physical Fitness test
* Quadrathon - an excellent all round test - originally devised for throwers
* Wilf Paish Rugby Football Tests
Flexibility
* Hip Flexion Test
* Modified Sit and Reach Test - lower back and hamstring test
* Sit and Reach test - lower back and hamstring test
* Static Flexibility Test - Ankle
* Static Flexibility Test - Hip & Trunk
* Static Flexibility Test - Shoulder & Wrist
* Static Flexibility Test - Trunk & Neck
* Static Flexibility Test - Shoulder
* Trunk Flexion Test
Psychology
* SCAT - Sport Competition Anxiety Test
* TEOSQ - Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire
Reaction Time
* Ruler Drop Test
Strength - Core
* Core muscle strength and stability test - Abdominals and lower back
Strength - Elastic
* Jumps Decathlon - suitable for jumpers
* Leg Elastic Strength test - suitable for jumpers
* Standing Long Jump test - suitable for sprinters, rugby, football, hockey, fencing etc.
* Sprint Bound Index - suitable for sprinters
* Sergeant (vertical) Jump Test - suitable for basketball, volleyball, football, rugby etc.
Strength - General
* Abdominal Curl Conditioning Test (NCF)
* Biceps Curl Test
* Burpee Test
* Canadian Crunch Test
* Chin up Test - Arm and shoulder muscular endurance
* Dynamic Knee Extension Test - Knee extensor muscles
* Flexed Arm-Hang Test
* Sit Ups test - Abdominal curl strength
* Curl-Up test - Abdominal muscle endurance
* Grip Strength - Grip strength with a Dynamometer
* Overhead Press Test - Elbow extensors and superior shoulder girdle muscles
* Press Up test - Upper body muscle endurance
* Strength test - upper body - Bench Press
* Strength test - lower body - Leg Press
* Squats Test
* Wall Squat Test - Quadriceps strength endurance
Speed and Power
* 10 stride test for 100m and 200m athletes
* 30 metre acceleration test for 100m and 200m athletes
* 30 metre Sprint Fatigue - Power Maintenance Test
* 35 metre Sprint Speed Test
* 40 metre multiple Sprint Test
* 40 yard Sprint Speed Test- predict an athlete's 400 metre time
* 60 metre speed test for 100m and 200m athletes
* 150 metre Endurance test for 100m athletes
* 250 metre Endurance test for 200m athletes
* 300 yard shuttle test - suitable for football, rugby, hockey, basketball, squash
* 400 metre Drop off test for 100m and 200m athletes
* 400 metre Control tests for 400m athletes
* Concept 2 Rowing Step test - Monitor anaerobic threshold
* Flying 30 metre speed test for 100m and 200m athletes
* LAS (Lactic vs Speed ) test for 400m athletes
* Margaria Kalamen Power Test
* PWC-170 test- predicts power output at a heart rate of 170 bpm
* Wingate ANaerobic 30 cycle test- Cycling based Anaerobic test
Talent Evaluation
* Evaluation of male and female physical talent
Tests for young athletes
The following tests can be used with young athletes
* Norwich Union Shine awards - all age groups
Free Calculators
* To support many of the above evaluation tests the Sports Coach Excel calculator page contains a number of free Microsoft Excel spreadsheets that you can download and use on your computer.
How can performance be monitored?
Testing and measurement are the means of collecting information upon which subsequent performance evaluations and decisions are made.
What is the evaluation process?
The whole measurement/evaluation process is a six stage, cyclic affair, involving:
* The selection of characteristics to be measured
* The selection of a suitable method of measuring
* The collection of that data
* The analysis of the collected data
* The making of decisions
* The implementation of those decisions
All of the above stages should be completed with the athlete - especially the analysis of the collected data and making decision of appropriate way forward.
What are the requirements of a test?
In constructing tests it is important to make sure that they really measure the factors required to be tested, and are thus objective rather than subjective. In doing so all tests should therefore be specific (designed to assess an athlete's fitness for the activity in question), valid (test what they purpose to test), reliable (capable of consistent repetition) and objective (produce a consistent result irrespective of the tester).
In conducting tests the following points should be considered:
* Each test should measure ONE factor only
* The test should not require any technical competence on the part of the athlete (unless it is being used to assess technique)
* Care should be taken to make sure that the athlete understands exactly what is required of him/her, what is being measured and why
* The test procedure should be strictly standardised in terms of administration, organisation and environmental conditions
What are the benefits of testing?
The results from tests can be used to:
* predict future performance
* indicate weaknesses
* measure improvement
* enable the coach to assess the success of his training program
* place the athlete in appropriate training group
* motivate the athlete
Tests additionally break up, and add variety to, the training program. They can be used to satisfy the athlete's competitive urge out of season. Since they demand maximum effort of the athlete, they are useful at times as a training unit in their own right.
What factors may influence test results?
The following factors may have an impact on the results of a test (test reliability):
* The ambient temperature, noise level and humidity
* The amount of sleep the athlete had prior to testing
* The athlete's emotional state
* Medication the athlete may be taking
* The time of day
* The athlete's caffeine intake
* The time since the athlete's last meal
* The test environment - surface (track, grass, road, gym)
* The athlete's prior test knowledge/experience
* Accuracy of measurements (times, distances etc.)
* Is the athlete actually applying maximum effort in maximal tests
* Inappropriate warm up
* People present
* The personality, knowledge and skill of the tester
Why record information?
For the coach and athlete it is important to monitor the program of work, to maintain progression in terms of the volume of work and its intensity. Both coach and athlete must keep their own training records. A training diary can give an enormous amount of information about what has happened in the past and how training has gone in the past. When planning future training cycles, information of this kind is invaluable.
What should be recorded?
The information to be recorded falls into two broad categories: -
* The day-to-day information from training
o State of the athlete (health, composure)
o Physiological data (body weight, resting heart rate, etc.)
o The training unit (speed, speed endurance, strength, technique)
o The training load (the number of miles, the number of sets and repetitions, the number of attempts)
o The training intensity (kilograms, percentage of maximum, percentage of VO2)
o The prevailing conditions (wet, windy, hot etc.)
o The response to training (the assignments completed, the resultant heart rate recovery, felt tired, etc.)
* Information that measures status. This can take the form of a test. If the test is repeated throughout the program, it can then be used as a measure of progress within the training discipline. Examples of such tests are:
o Time trials - speed, speed endurance, endurance
o Muscular endurance - chins, push ups, dips
o Strength maximum - single repetitions, maximum repetitions
o Explosive strength - power bounding, vertical jump, overhead shot putt
o Mobility - objective measurements of the range of movement
o Event specific
Competition evaluation
Following competition, it is important that the coach and athlete get together as soon as possible in order to evaluate the athlete's performance. Elements to be considered are pre race preparations, focus and performance plans and achievement of these plans. An evaluation form is useful to help the athlete and coach conduct this review.
Maximal Tests
Maximal means the athlete works at maximum effort or tested to exhaustion. Examples of maximal anaerobic tests are the 30 metre acceleration test and the Wingate ANaerobic 30 cycle test. Examples of maximal aerobic tests are the Multistage Fitness Test or Bleep test and the Cooper VO2max test
Disadvantages of maximal tests are:
* difficulty in ensuring the subject is exerting maximum effort
* possible dangers of over exertion and injury
* dependent on the athlete's level of arousal
Submaximal Tests
Submaximal means the athlete works below maximum effort. In sub maximal tests, extrapolation is used to estimate maximum capacity. Examples of submaximal aerobic test are the PWC-170 test and the Queens College Step Test.
Disadvantages of submaximal tests are:
* depend on extrapolation being made to unknown maximum
* small measurement inaccuracies can result in large discrepancies as a result of the extrapolation
Normative data
Where normative data (average test results) is available, it is included on the appropriate evaluation test pages which are identified below.
Evaluation Test Groups
The 100 evaluation tests are grouped as follows:
* Aerobic Endurance - VO2 max (21)
* Anaerobic Endurance (2)
* Agility (8)
* Balance (2)
* Body Composition (5)
* Event Time Predictors (4)
* Fitness General (4)
* Flexibility (9)
* Psychology (2)
* Reaction Time (1)
* Strength - Core (1)
* Strength - Elastic (5)
* Strength - General (16)
* Speed and Power (18)
* Talent Evaluation (1)
* Tests for young athletes (1)
Evaluation Tests
Aerobic Endurance - VO2 max
* 2.4km Run Test
* Astrand Treadmill test - VO2max test running on a treadmill
* Astrand 6 minute Cycle test - Vo2 max test on a static bike
* Balke VO2max test - suitable for endurance sports
* Balke Incremental treadmill protocol test- VO2max test on a treadmill (male and female tests)
* Bruce Incremental treadmill protocol test- VO2max test on a treadmill (male and female tests)
* Cooper VO2max test - suitable for endurance sports
* Conconi test
* Critical Swim Speed - measure of a swimmers aerobic capacity
* Home Step Test - a step test you can conduct at home
* Harvard Step Test - measure of cardiovascular fitness
* Multistage Fitness Test or Bleep test - VO2 max test for endurance sports
* Queens College Step Test - VO2 max test
* Rockport Fitness walking test - VO2 max test
* Tecumseh Step Test - measure of cardiovascular fitness
* Treadmill VO2max test - VO2 max test
* VO2max from non-exercise data - VO2 max test
* VO2max from a one mile jog
* VO2max from a race result (time for a distance)
* VO2max Step Test
* Wheelchair VO2max Test
Anaerobic Endurance
* Cunningham and Faulkner Test
* RAST - Running-based Anaerobic Sprint Test
Agility
* 505 Agility Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Hexagonal Obstacle Agility Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Illinois agility run test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Lateral Change of Direction test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Quick Feet test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Shuttle Run Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* 'T' Drill test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
* Zig-Zag Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
Balance
* Standing Stork Test - balance test
* Standing Stork Test Blind- balance test
Body Composition
* Body Fat Percentage
* Body Mass Index (BMI)
* Muscle Fibre Test - Dr F. Hatfield
* Yuhasz skinfold test
* Body Fat Percentage using Girth Measurements
Event Time Predictors
* 400 metre predictor test - predicts an athlete's potential 400 metre time
* 1500 metre predictor test - predict an athlete's potential 1500 metre time
* 5km predictor test - predict an athlete's potential 5km time
* Kosmin predictor test - predict an athlete's potential 800 metre and 1500 metre time
Fitness General
* Medicine Ball Javelin Quadrathlon - fitness and strength test for Javelin throwers
* McCloy Physical Fitness test
* Quadrathon - an excellent all round test - originally devised for throwers
* Wilf Paish Rugby Football Tests
Flexibility
* Hip Flexion Test
* Modified Sit and Reach Test - lower back and hamstring test
* Sit and Reach test - lower back and hamstring test
* Static Flexibility Test - Ankle
* Static Flexibility Test - Hip & Trunk
* Static Flexibility Test - Shoulder & Wrist
* Static Flexibility Test - Trunk & Neck
* Static Flexibility Test - Shoulder
* Trunk Flexion Test
Psychology
* SCAT - Sport Competition Anxiety Test
* TEOSQ - Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire
Reaction Time
* Ruler Drop Test
Strength - Core
* Core muscle strength and stability test - Abdominals and lower back
Strength - Elastic
* Jumps Decathlon - suitable for jumpers
* Leg Elastic Strength test - suitable for jumpers
* Standing Long Jump test - suitable for sprinters, rugby, football, hockey, fencing etc.
* Sprint Bound Index - suitable for sprinters
* Sergeant (vertical) Jump Test - suitable for basketball, volleyball, football, rugby etc.
Strength - General
* Abdominal Curl Conditioning Test (NCF)
* Biceps Curl Test
* Burpee Test
* Canadian Crunch Test
* Chin up Test - Arm and shoulder muscular endurance
* Dynamic Knee Extension Test - Knee extensor muscles
* Flexed Arm-Hang Test
* Sit Ups test - Abdominal curl strength
* Curl-Up test - Abdominal muscle endurance
* Grip Strength - Grip strength with a Dynamometer
* Overhead Press Test - Elbow extensors and superior shoulder girdle muscles
* Press Up test - Upper body muscle endurance
* Strength test - upper body - Bench Press
* Strength test - lower body - Leg Press
* Squats Test
* Wall Squat Test - Quadriceps strength endurance
Speed and Power
* 10 stride test for 100m and 200m athletes
* 30 metre acceleration test for 100m and 200m athletes
* 30 metre Sprint Fatigue - Power Maintenance Test
* 35 metre Sprint Speed Test
* 40 metre multiple Sprint Test
* 40 yard Sprint Speed Test- predict an athlete's 400 metre time
* 60 metre speed test for 100m and 200m athletes
* 150 metre Endurance test for 100m athletes
* 250 metre Endurance test for 200m athletes
* 300 yard shuttle test - suitable for football, rugby, hockey, basketball, squash
* 400 metre Drop off test for 100m and 200m athletes
* 400 metre Control tests for 400m athletes
* Concept 2 Rowing Step test - Monitor anaerobic threshold
* Flying 30 metre speed test for 100m and 200m athletes
* LAS (Lactic vs Speed ) test for 400m athletes
* Margaria Kalamen Power Test
* PWC-170 test- predicts power output at a heart rate of 170 bpm
* Wingate ANaerobic 30 cycle test- Cycling based Anaerobic test
Talent Evaluation
* Evaluation of male and female physical talent
Tests for young athletes
The following tests can be used with young athletes
* Norwich Union Shine awards - all age groups
Free Calculators
* To support many of the above evaluation tests the Sports Coach Excel calculator page contains a number of free Microsoft Excel spreadsheets that you can download and use on your computer.
Long Term Athletic Development (LTAD)
Sports scientists have reported that there are critical periods in the life of a young person in which the effects of training can be maximised. They have also concluded that it can take anything from eight to twelve years of training for a talented athlete to achieve elite status. This has led to the development of athletic models, which identify appropriate training aims at each stage of the athlete's physical development.
Athletic model indicators
LTADResearch has shown that that chronological age is not a good indicator on which to base athletic development models for athletes between the ages of 10 to 16 as within this age group there is a wide variation in the physical, cognitive and emotional development.
One practical solution is to use the onset of Peak Height Velocity (PHV), which is influenced by genetics and environmental factors (climate, cultural & social), as a reference point for the design of training programs.
PVH is the point in a child's development when they reach their maximum growth rate. The average age for reaching PVH is 12 for girls and 14 for boys.
Using simple measurements (standing height & sitting height) PHV can be monitored and appropriate training can be set to match the athlete's development.
Model for LTAD
Sports can be classified as early specialization (e.g. gymnastics) or late specialization (e.g. Track and Field, Team sports). Early specialization sports require a four phase model while a late specialization model requires six phases.
Early Specialization Model
Late Specialization Model
1. Training to train
2. Training to compete
3. Training to win
4. Retirement & retainment
1. FUNdamental
2. Learning to train
3. Training to train
4. Training to compete
5. Training to win
6. Retirement & retainment
Late Specialization Model
Phase 1 - FUNdamentals
This phase is appropriate for boys aged 6 to 9 and girls aged 5 to 8. The main objective should be the overall development of the athlete’s physical capacities and fundamental movement skills. The key points of this phase are:
* Participation in as many sports as possible
* Speed, power and endurance are developed using FUN games
* Appropriate and correct running, jumping and throwing techniques are taught using the ABC's of athletics
* Introduction to the simple rules and ethics of sports
* Strength training with exercises which use the child’s own body weight; medicine ball and Swiss ball exercises
* Training programs, based on the school year, are structured and monitored but not periodised
* Develop the athlete's:
o ABC's (Agility, Balance, Coordination and Speed)
o RJT (Running, Jumping, Throwing)
o KGBs (Kinesthetics, Gliding, Buoyancy, Striking with a body part)
o CKs (Catching, Kicking, Striking with an implement)
The first ‘critical period of speed development’ will occur during this phase, age 6-8 for girls and 7-9 for boys respectively. Linear, lateral and multi-directional speed should be developed and the duration of the repetitions should be less than 5 seconds. Fun and games should be used for speed training and the volume of training should be lower.
Phase 2 - Learning to train
This phase is appropriate for boys aged 9 to 12 and girls aged 8 to 11. The main objective should be to learn all fundamental sports skills. The key points of this phase are:
* Further develop fundamental movement skills
* Learn general overall sports skills
* Continue to develop strength with medicine ball, Swiss ball and own body-weight exercises as well as hopping-bounding exercises
* Continue to develop endurance with games and relays
* Introduce basic flexibility exercises
* Continue to develop speed with specific activities during the warm-up, such as agility, quickness and change of direction
* Develop knowledge of warm up, cool down, stretching, hydration, nutrition, recovery, relaxation and focusing
* Training programs are structured and based on a single periodisation
* Competition is structured and a 70:30 training/practice to competition-ratio is recommended
Phase 3 - Training to train
This phase is appropriate for boys aged 12 to 16 and girls aged 11 to 15. The main objective should be the overall development of the athlete’s physical capacities (focus on aerobic conditioning) and fundamental movement skills. The key points of this phase are:
* Further develop speed and sport-specific skills
* Develop the aerobic base - after the onset of PHV
* Learn correct weight lifting techniques
* Develop knowledge of how and when to stretch, how to optimise nutrition and hydration, mental preparation, how and when to taper and peak
* Establish pre-competition, competition and post competition routines
* The strength training window for boys begins 12 to 18 months after PHV
* There are two windows of opportunity to strength training for girls
o Window one is immediately after PHV
o Window two begins with the onset of menarche (the first menstrual period)
* Special emphasis is also required for flexibility training due to the sudden growth of bones, tendons, ligaments and muscles
* A 60% training to 40% competition ratio (includes competition and competition-specific training) is recommended
Phase 4 - Training to compete
This phase is appropriate for boys aged 16 to 18 and girls aged 15 to 17. The main objective should be to optimise fitness preparation, sport/event specific skills and performance. The key points of this phase are:
* 50% of available time is devoted to the development of technical and tactical skills and fitness improvements
* 50% of available time is devoted to competition and competition-specific training
* Learn to perform these sport specific skills under a variety of competitive conditions during training
* Special emphasis is placed on optimum preparation by modeling training and competition
* Fitness programs, recovery programs, psychological preparation and technical development are now individually tailored to the athlete's needs
* Double and multiple periodisation is the optimal framework of preparation
Phase 5 - Training to win
This phase is appropriate for boys aged 18+ and girls aged 17+. The main objective should be to maximize fitness preparation and sport/event specific skills as well as performance. The key points of this phase are:
* All of the athlete’s physical, technical, tactical, mental, personal and lifestyle capacities are now fully established and the focus of training has shifted to the maximization of performance
* Athletes train to peak for major competitions
* Training is characterized by high intensity and relatively high volume with appropriate breaks to prevent over training
* Training to competition ratio in this phase is 25:75, with the competition percentage including competition-specific training activities
Phase 6 - Retirement & retainment
The main objective should be to retain athletes for coaching, officiating, sport administration etc.
LTAD Model
The diagrams below show the above Late Specialization LTAD Model phases for boys and girls.
LTAD for Girls LTAD for boys
UK Athletics Model
The following is an example of a five stage progression (UK Athletics model) for long term athlete development:
1. Fundamentals - where the emphasis is on fun, developing basic fitness and general movement skills - training years 1 to 3 and ideally a chronological age of 6 to 13.
2. Learning to Train - where the emphasis is to learn how to train and develop their general skills - training years 3 to 5 and ideally a chronological age of 10 to 15.
3. Training to Train - where the emphasis is event(s) specific training - training years 5 to 7 and ideally a chronological age of 13 to 17.
4. Training to Compete - where the emphasis is to correct weaknesses and develop athletic abilities - training years 7 to 9 and ideally a chronological age of 15 to 19.
5. Training to Win - where the emphasis is on enhancing performance - training years 10+ and ideally a chronological age of 18+.
Related Research Papers
* Balyi I,. Hamilton A. (2004) Long-Term Athlete Development: Trainability in Childhood and Adolescence. Windows of Opportunity. Optimal Trainability. Victoria: National Coaching Institute British Columbia & Advanced Training and Performance Ltd.
* Anderson, G.S., and Bernhardt, B.A. Coaching Children. Growth and Maturation Considerations. BC Coaches’ Perspective. Fall, 1998. Vol.2. Issue. 4. pp.14 - 16.
* Bar-Or, O. ed., The Child and Adolescent Athlete. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1996.
* Blimkie, C.J.R. and Bar-Or, O. “Trainability of Muscle Strength, Power and Endurance during Childhood”. In: Bar-Or, O. ed., The Child and Adolescent Athlete. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1996.
* Bloom, B. Developing Talent in Young People. New York: Ballantines, 1985.
* Building Pathways in Irish Sport. National Training and Coaching Centre, Ireland, 2003.
* Ericsson, K.A. and Charness, N. Expert performance. Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, August 1994, p. 725-747.
* Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R.T. and Tesch-Romer, C. The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 1993, p. 363-406.
* Malina, R.M. and Bouchard, C. Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics, 1991.
* Ross, W.D. and Marfell-Jones, M.J. Chapter 6. Kinanthropometry. In MacDougall, D.J., Wenger, H.A. and Green, H.J. Physiological Testing of the High-Performance Athlete. 2nd Edition. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics, pp.76-115.
* Rowland, T. Developmental Exercise Physiology. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics, 1996.
* Rushall, B. The Growth of Physical Characteristics in Male and Female Children. In: Sports Coach, Australia. Vol. 20., No.64, Summer, 1998. pp. 25-27.
* Salmela, J.H., Young, B.W. and Kallio, J. Within-career transition of the athletecoach triad. In Wylleman, P. and Lavallee, D., (Eds.) Career transition in :. Morgantown, VA: Fit Publications, 1998.
* The Swimmer Pathway. Amateur Swimming Association. England. 2003.
* Viru, A. Adaptation in Sports Training. London, CRC Press. 1995.
* Viru, A., Loko, J., Volver, A., Laanetos, L., Karelson, K., and Viru, M. Age Periods of Accelerated Improvements of Muscle Strength, Power, speed and endurance in the Age Interval 6-18 Years. In Biology of Sport (Warsaw) Vol. 15(4), 1998, pp. 211-227.
* Vorontsov, A.R. Patterns of Growth for Some Characteristics of Physical Development: Functional and Motor Abilities in Boy Swimmers 11 – 18 Years. In: Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VIII, eds. Keskinen, K.L., Komi, P.V. and Hollander, A.P. Jyvaskyla, Gunners, 1999.
Athletic model indicators
LTADResearch has shown that that chronological age is not a good indicator on which to base athletic development models for athletes between the ages of 10 to 16 as within this age group there is a wide variation in the physical, cognitive and emotional development.
One practical solution is to use the onset of Peak Height Velocity (PHV), which is influenced by genetics and environmental factors (climate, cultural & social), as a reference point for the design of training programs.
PVH is the point in a child's development when they reach their maximum growth rate. The average age for reaching PVH is 12 for girls and 14 for boys.
Using simple measurements (standing height & sitting height) PHV can be monitored and appropriate training can be set to match the athlete's development.
Model for LTAD
Sports can be classified as early specialization (e.g. gymnastics) or late specialization (e.g. Track and Field, Team sports). Early specialization sports require a four phase model while a late specialization model requires six phases.
Early Specialization Model
Late Specialization Model
1. Training to train
2. Training to compete
3. Training to win
4. Retirement & retainment
1. FUNdamental
2. Learning to train
3. Training to train
4. Training to compete
5. Training to win
6. Retirement & retainment
Late Specialization Model
Phase 1 - FUNdamentals
This phase is appropriate for boys aged 6 to 9 and girls aged 5 to 8. The main objective should be the overall development of the athlete’s physical capacities and fundamental movement skills. The key points of this phase are:
* Participation in as many sports as possible
* Speed, power and endurance are developed using FUN games
* Appropriate and correct running, jumping and throwing techniques are taught using the ABC's of athletics
* Introduction to the simple rules and ethics of sports
* Strength training with exercises which use the child’s own body weight; medicine ball and Swiss ball exercises
* Training programs, based on the school year, are structured and monitored but not periodised
* Develop the athlete's:
o ABC's (Agility, Balance, Coordination and Speed)
o RJT (Running, Jumping, Throwing)
o KGBs (Kinesthetics, Gliding, Buoyancy, Striking with a body part)
o CKs (Catching, Kicking, Striking with an implement)
The first ‘critical period of speed development’ will occur during this phase, age 6-8 for girls and 7-9 for boys respectively. Linear, lateral and multi-directional speed should be developed and the duration of the repetitions should be less than 5 seconds. Fun and games should be used for speed training and the volume of training should be lower.
Phase 2 - Learning to train
This phase is appropriate for boys aged 9 to 12 and girls aged 8 to 11. The main objective should be to learn all fundamental sports skills. The key points of this phase are:
* Further develop fundamental movement skills
* Learn general overall sports skills
* Continue to develop strength with medicine ball, Swiss ball and own body-weight exercises as well as hopping-bounding exercises
* Continue to develop endurance with games and relays
* Introduce basic flexibility exercises
* Continue to develop speed with specific activities during the warm-up, such as agility, quickness and change of direction
* Develop knowledge of warm up, cool down, stretching, hydration, nutrition, recovery, relaxation and focusing
* Training programs are structured and based on a single periodisation
* Competition is structured and a 70:30 training/practice to competition-ratio is recommended
Phase 3 - Training to train
This phase is appropriate for boys aged 12 to 16 and girls aged 11 to 15. The main objective should be the overall development of the athlete’s physical capacities (focus on aerobic conditioning) and fundamental movement skills. The key points of this phase are:
* Further develop speed and sport-specific skills
* Develop the aerobic base - after the onset of PHV
* Learn correct weight lifting techniques
* Develop knowledge of how and when to stretch, how to optimise nutrition and hydration, mental preparation, how and when to taper and peak
* Establish pre-competition, competition and post competition routines
* The strength training window for boys begins 12 to 18 months after PHV
* There are two windows of opportunity to strength training for girls
o Window one is immediately after PHV
o Window two begins with the onset of menarche (the first menstrual period)
* Special emphasis is also required for flexibility training due to the sudden growth of bones, tendons, ligaments and muscles
* A 60% training to 40% competition ratio (includes competition and competition-specific training) is recommended
Phase 4 - Training to compete
This phase is appropriate for boys aged 16 to 18 and girls aged 15 to 17. The main objective should be to optimise fitness preparation, sport/event specific skills and performance. The key points of this phase are:
* 50% of available time is devoted to the development of technical and tactical skills and fitness improvements
* 50% of available time is devoted to competition and competition-specific training
* Learn to perform these sport specific skills under a variety of competitive conditions during training
* Special emphasis is placed on optimum preparation by modeling training and competition
* Fitness programs, recovery programs, psychological preparation and technical development are now individually tailored to the athlete's needs
* Double and multiple periodisation is the optimal framework of preparation
Phase 5 - Training to win
This phase is appropriate for boys aged 18+ and girls aged 17+. The main objective should be to maximize fitness preparation and sport/event specific skills as well as performance. The key points of this phase are:
* All of the athlete’s physical, technical, tactical, mental, personal and lifestyle capacities are now fully established and the focus of training has shifted to the maximization of performance
* Athletes train to peak for major competitions
* Training is characterized by high intensity and relatively high volume with appropriate breaks to prevent over training
* Training to competition ratio in this phase is 25:75, with the competition percentage including competition-specific training activities
Phase 6 - Retirement & retainment
The main objective should be to retain athletes for coaching, officiating, sport administration etc.
LTAD Model
The diagrams below show the above Late Specialization LTAD Model phases for boys and girls.
LTAD for Girls LTAD for boys
UK Athletics Model
The following is an example of a five stage progression (UK Athletics model) for long term athlete development:
1. Fundamentals - where the emphasis is on fun, developing basic fitness and general movement skills - training years 1 to 3 and ideally a chronological age of 6 to 13.
2. Learning to Train - where the emphasis is to learn how to train and develop their general skills - training years 3 to 5 and ideally a chronological age of 10 to 15.
3. Training to Train - where the emphasis is event(s) specific training - training years 5 to 7 and ideally a chronological age of 13 to 17.
4. Training to Compete - where the emphasis is to correct weaknesses and develop athletic abilities - training years 7 to 9 and ideally a chronological age of 15 to 19.
5. Training to Win - where the emphasis is on enhancing performance - training years 10+ and ideally a chronological age of 18+.
Related Research Papers
* Balyi I,. Hamilton A. (2004) Long-Term Athlete Development: Trainability in Childhood and Adolescence. Windows of Opportunity. Optimal Trainability. Victoria: National Coaching Institute British Columbia & Advanced Training and Performance Ltd.
* Anderson, G.S., and Bernhardt, B.A. Coaching Children. Growth and Maturation Considerations. BC Coaches’ Perspective. Fall, 1998. Vol.2. Issue. 4. pp.14 - 16.
* Bar-Or, O. ed., The Child and Adolescent Athlete. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1996.
* Blimkie, C.J.R. and Bar-Or, O. “Trainability of Muscle Strength, Power and Endurance during Childhood”. In: Bar-Or, O. ed., The Child and Adolescent Athlete. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1996.
* Bloom, B. Developing Talent in Young People. New York: Ballantines, 1985.
* Building Pathways in Irish Sport. National Training and Coaching Centre, Ireland, 2003.
* Ericsson, K.A. and Charness, N. Expert performance. Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, August 1994, p. 725-747.
* Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R.T. and Tesch-Romer, C. The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 1993, p. 363-406.
* Malina, R.M. and Bouchard, C. Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics, 1991.
* Ross, W.D. and Marfell-Jones, M.J. Chapter 6. Kinanthropometry. In MacDougall, D.J., Wenger, H.A. and Green, H.J. Physiological Testing of the High-Performance Athlete. 2nd Edition. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics, pp.76-115.
* Rowland, T. Developmental Exercise Physiology. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics, 1996.
* Rushall, B. The Growth of Physical Characteristics in Male and Female Children. In: Sports Coach, Australia. Vol. 20., No.64, Summer, 1998. pp. 25-27.
* Salmela, J.H., Young, B.W. and Kallio, J. Within-career transition of the athletecoach triad. In Wylleman, P. and Lavallee, D., (Eds.) Career transition in :. Morgantown, VA: Fit Publications, 1998.
* The Swimmer Pathway. Amateur Swimming Association. England. 2003.
* Viru, A. Adaptation in Sports Training. London, CRC Press. 1995.
* Viru, A., Loko, J., Volver, A., Laanetos, L., Karelson, K., and Viru, M. Age Periods of Accelerated Improvements of Muscle Strength, Power, speed and endurance in the Age Interval 6-18 Years. In Biology of Sport (Warsaw) Vol. 15(4), 1998, pp. 211-227.
* Vorontsov, A.R. Patterns of Growth for Some Characteristics of Physical Development: Functional and Motor Abilities in Boy Swimmers 11 – 18 Years. In: Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VIII, eds. Keskinen, K.L., Komi, P.V. and Hollander, A.P. Jyvaskyla, Gunners, 1999.
Cryotherapy
Cryotherapy is the use of cooling as a means of treating injuries, and may be used in different ways on both acute and chronic injuries. Much research has been carried out on the effects of cooling on damaged soft tissues, and although the benefits are now widely accepted, there are varying opinions on how long the application should be to gain maximum benefit. There are many athletes who believe a long soak in a hot bath after an injury is the best remedy to ease the pain.
The body's reaction to an injury
In many instances, no matter how small the injury, tissues will have either been stretched or an impact received causing blood vessels to be torn or damaged. The extent of bleeding will depend on the vascularity of the tissues involved, and may be increased if injured during exercise. Blood will flow out until the vessels are restricted (vasoconstriction), so preventing further blood leaking into the tissues. It is important to stop bleeding into tissues as the blood will act as an irritant, increase inflammation, and must be cleared from the tissues before the healing process can properly commence.
Cells starved of nourishment from the blood due to injury will soon die. These dying cells stimulate the release of histamine causing the blood vessels to dilate, thereby bringing increased blood supply and extra nutrients to help repair and rebuild the damaged tissues. During this phase of increased but slower and more viscous blood supply, the capillary walls become much more permeable and quantities of protein and inflammatory substances are pushed into the area causing swelling. Various reactions continue at a rapid rate, all contributing to the healing process.
Muscle spasm may also occur causing the muscle to contract either voluntarily or involuntarily, helping prevent further movement. However, this may have adverse effects by further restricting blood flow and placing more pressure on nerve endings, leading to increased pain.
Cold Therapy Products
Cold therapy packs and wraps. Buy online for fast dispatch.
Select this link to view and order your Cold Therapy Products.
RICE
By applying ice or cooling immediately after an injury involving damage to soft tissues, the level of swelling and amount of blood allowed to leak out may be substantially limited. This will also be assisted by compression, elevation and rest, hence "ICER", (or more commonly "RICE)
* Ice - Apply ice for up to 10 minutes as soon after the injury as possible - do not wait for the swelling to start. This may be repeated every 2 hours during the first two days after injury. It is important not to keep the ice on any longer than 10 minutes as the body then reacts by increasing blood flow to warm the area and therefore exacerbating the swelling. Do not apply ice directly to the skin. Use a wet flannel
* Compression - After ice, apply a compression bandage to help minimise the swelling to the tissues
* Elevation - Elevate the injured part to help limit blood flow and prevent use of muscles to injured part
* Rest - the injured part as much as possible to allow the healing of damaged tissues
Failure to do this means that the period of recovery from injury may be considerably extended whilst the swelling and removal of dead tissue and blood cells is dealt with. If severe and not properly managed, these may create long term problems for the athlete.
Use of Ice
When applying ice, never do so directly onto the skin as this may result in ice burns to the skin. Wrap the ice in a damp cloth (a dry cloth will not transmit cold effectively). There is on going, debate over how long, to apply ice, and current research suggests that during the acute phase (i.e. first 24-48 hours after injury), 10 minutes is the maximum time needed and may be adjusted downwards according to the depth of tissues it is being applied too. Application for the appropriate time must be repeated every 2 hours during the acute phase. Once only, after injury is not enough!
If the ice pack is left on for more than 10 minutes, a reflex reaction occurs (Hunting effect) where the blood vessels dilate and blood is again pumped into the injured area, causing further bleeding and swelling.
Ice will have an analgesic effect on the injured part by limiting the pain and swelling, muscle spasm may also be reduced. Whilst this has obvious benefits, be cautious about reducing the pain, as this may mask the seriousness of the injury.
During the first 24 to 72 hours after an injury be sure to avoid any form of heat at the injury site (e.g. heat lamps, heat creams, spa's, Jacuzzi's and sauna's), avoid movement and do not massage the injured area as these will increase the bleeding, swelling and pain.
After the initial healing period of up to 72 hours (depending on the severity of the injury), ice massage may be incorporated into treatments. By applying stroking movements with an ice pack, the blood vessels will dilate and constrict alternately bringing an increased supply of blood and nutrients to the area, and so increasing the rate of healing. This may be done for more than 10 minutes to increase circulation.
Ice Baths
Ice baths have become popular in contact sports like rugby and American Football and with endurance athletes. For contact sports whole body ice baths can be considered and for sports that predominantly stress the legs, such as football, field hockey, running etc. immersion of the lower limbs only can be considered. Initially start with one minute sessions and progressing to a maximum of 10 minutes over a period of 10 weeks
Contra indications of using ice
* Check a person's general sensitivity to ice - some people find the application of cold immediately painful
* Do not use ice on injuries in the chest region as in some instances this may cause a reaction in the muscles, bringing about angina pain, possibly from the constriction of coronary arteries
* Always check skin sensitivity before applying ice - if a person cannot feel touch before applying ice it may indicate other problems such as nerve impingement. In such instances ice would only serve to mask this and complicate the problem
* Do not apply cold to someone with high blood pressure as vasoconstriction will increase the pressure within the vessels
Education
It is important to educate anyone managing injuries including athletes themselves on at least the basic use of Ice on soft tissue injuries - early treatment is essential.
The body's reaction to an injury
In many instances, no matter how small the injury, tissues will have either been stretched or an impact received causing blood vessels to be torn or damaged. The extent of bleeding will depend on the vascularity of the tissues involved, and may be increased if injured during exercise. Blood will flow out until the vessels are restricted (vasoconstriction), so preventing further blood leaking into the tissues. It is important to stop bleeding into tissues as the blood will act as an irritant, increase inflammation, and must be cleared from the tissues before the healing process can properly commence.
Cells starved of nourishment from the blood due to injury will soon die. These dying cells stimulate the release of histamine causing the blood vessels to dilate, thereby bringing increased blood supply and extra nutrients to help repair and rebuild the damaged tissues. During this phase of increased but slower and more viscous blood supply, the capillary walls become much more permeable and quantities of protein and inflammatory substances are pushed into the area causing swelling. Various reactions continue at a rapid rate, all contributing to the healing process.
Muscle spasm may also occur causing the muscle to contract either voluntarily or involuntarily, helping prevent further movement. However, this may have adverse effects by further restricting blood flow and placing more pressure on nerve endings, leading to increased pain.
Cold Therapy Products
Cold therapy packs and wraps. Buy online for fast dispatch.
Select this link to view and order your Cold Therapy Products.
RICE
By applying ice or cooling immediately after an injury involving damage to soft tissues, the level of swelling and amount of blood allowed to leak out may be substantially limited. This will also be assisted by compression, elevation and rest, hence "ICER", (or more commonly "RICE)
* Ice - Apply ice for up to 10 minutes as soon after the injury as possible - do not wait for the swelling to start. This may be repeated every 2 hours during the first two days after injury. It is important not to keep the ice on any longer than 10 minutes as the body then reacts by increasing blood flow to warm the area and therefore exacerbating the swelling. Do not apply ice directly to the skin. Use a wet flannel
* Compression - After ice, apply a compression bandage to help minimise the swelling to the tissues
* Elevation - Elevate the injured part to help limit blood flow and prevent use of muscles to injured part
* Rest - the injured part as much as possible to allow the healing of damaged tissues
Failure to do this means that the period of recovery from injury may be considerably extended whilst the swelling and removal of dead tissue and blood cells is dealt with. If severe and not properly managed, these may create long term problems for the athlete.
Use of Ice
When applying ice, never do so directly onto the skin as this may result in ice burns to the skin. Wrap the ice in a damp cloth (a dry cloth will not transmit cold effectively). There is on going, debate over how long, to apply ice, and current research suggests that during the acute phase (i.e. first 24-48 hours after injury), 10 minutes is the maximum time needed and may be adjusted downwards according to the depth of tissues it is being applied too. Application for the appropriate time must be repeated every 2 hours during the acute phase. Once only, after injury is not enough!
If the ice pack is left on for more than 10 minutes, a reflex reaction occurs (Hunting effect) where the blood vessels dilate and blood is again pumped into the injured area, causing further bleeding and swelling.
Ice will have an analgesic effect on the injured part by limiting the pain and swelling, muscle spasm may also be reduced. Whilst this has obvious benefits, be cautious about reducing the pain, as this may mask the seriousness of the injury.
During the first 24 to 72 hours after an injury be sure to avoid any form of heat at the injury site (e.g. heat lamps, heat creams, spa's, Jacuzzi's and sauna's), avoid movement and do not massage the injured area as these will increase the bleeding, swelling and pain.
After the initial healing period of up to 72 hours (depending on the severity of the injury), ice massage may be incorporated into treatments. By applying stroking movements with an ice pack, the blood vessels will dilate and constrict alternately bringing an increased supply of blood and nutrients to the area, and so increasing the rate of healing. This may be done for more than 10 minutes to increase circulation.
Ice Baths
Ice baths have become popular in contact sports like rugby and American Football and with endurance athletes. For contact sports whole body ice baths can be considered and for sports that predominantly stress the legs, such as football, field hockey, running etc. immersion of the lower limbs only can be considered. Initially start with one minute sessions and progressing to a maximum of 10 minutes over a period of 10 weeks
Contra indications of using ice
* Check a person's general sensitivity to ice - some people find the application of cold immediately painful
* Do not use ice on injuries in the chest region as in some instances this may cause a reaction in the muscles, bringing about angina pain, possibly from the constriction of coronary arteries
* Always check skin sensitivity before applying ice - if a person cannot feel touch before applying ice it may indicate other problems such as nerve impingement. In such instances ice would only serve to mask this and complicate the problem
* Do not apply cold to someone with high blood pressure as vasoconstriction will increase the pressure within the vessels
Education
It is important to educate anyone managing injuries including athletes themselves on at least the basic use of Ice on soft tissue injuries - early treatment is essential.
Creatine
Phosphocreatine (the phosphorylated form of Creatine) provides the means of regenerating small quantities of ATP extremely rapidly, so boosting short duration activities. Muscles are much less prone to fatigue and the capacity to undertake strenuous exercise is increased. Activities such as repetition weight training, short sprints, repeated bounding and jumping are all enhanced and therefore the quality of training increases which feeds into higher competitive performances. Studies made with middle distance athletes also seem to point to improvement.
Source
Creatine is both made by the body (from amino acids arginine, glycine and methionine) and gained from the diet. It occurs naturally in meats and fish. An athlete who is a big meat eater may have in his muscle five grams of creatine per kilogram of muscle, which is near the upper limit. This same athlete must take in approximately 2.5g of creatine per day to replace the natural degradation of creatine that takes place each day.
If you were to survey athletes you would find that there would be a wide variation in creatine content with some athletes having as little as three grams per kilogram of muscle, especially vegetarians and those people who are less active in sport. Those with low creatine content may be at a disadvantage since creatine has been described as the oil of the muscle engine that makes the muscle work more efficiently. Since very few athletes are at the top end of the scale (4.5- 5g/kg) supplementation will help to increase the creatine content in the muscles.
How much?
Much of the early work was based on supplementing creatine in five gram doses, four times a day for five days, then using two to three grams per day to maintain the enhanced levels. Studies based upon this level of supplementation observed rises in muscle creatine that resulted in an increased power output of about 5 - 7 per cent, presumably due to enhanced phosphocreatine levels. Manufacturers will claim significant increases in performances but in my experience, the increases are varied, from no effect at all to very significant increases.
Those at the bottom end of natural creatine muscle content will benefit the most whereas those at the upper end of the scale will have no benefit since it appears impossible to increase very high levels of creatine in the muscle. Perhaps those athletes who eat very low amounts (or none) of fish and meat will be the ones who benefit the most. Vegetarians who supplement with creatine may experience significant improvements. Athletes in the explosive events (sprints, jumps, throws) are likely to experience the most improvement but in the middle distance events in which phosphocreatine plays a small but important role the benefit of creatine supplementation has yet to be finally established. Latest research points to the body being unable to absorb large amounts of creatine into the muscle and it appears that five gram intakes will largely find their way into the urine rather than into the muscle.
It is now recommended that two to three gram intakes four times a day for 10 days will lead to less being eliminated in the urine, or a regime of three gram twice a day for 20 days may he equally beneficial. After such 'loading' intakes, a maintenance dose of perhaps only two gram per day is needed. For best effects, creatine should not be taken all year round and periods of no supplementation should be included in the annual cycle. To bring about a rapid elevation in the muscle creatine content, supplementation is best taken either before or after training itself. At other times of the day creatine should be co-ingested with a source of carbohydrate that is effective in elevating blood insulin levels, e.g. a Mars bar. There appears to be no long term effect in taking creatine supplements although it must be pointed out that the longest study, thus far is for only one-and-a-half' years.
Side effects
Since creatine is a natural component of the human diet athletes would therefore encounter creatine in the normal diet on a daily basis throughout their lives and there should be no harmful side effects. There appear to be some problems experienced by a minority of sprinters when loading with creatine in the form of muscle cramps and this may be related to the amount of the creatine supplemented. Athletes must experiment with the amount of creatine they need - more is not necessarily better and 'less may be best' in certain individuals.
Conclusion
Creatine, introduced and established in the nineties, will be with us into the next century, but further studies are needed to prove just how beneficial it is to athletes and in which events. The current advertising by commercial producers of creatine almost certainly exaggerates the benefits of creatine but it appears that some, if not all, adult athletes will benefit from creatine supplementation.
Creatine boosts muscle power
Investigations at the University of Nottingham show that five days of creatine supplementation can boost muscle power and performance during intense strength training ("Creatine Ingestion and Exercise Performance", International Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 14, p. 297, 1993). In the Nottingham study, 12 athletes carried out five bouts of 30 maximal contractions of the quadriceps muscles before and after five days of placebo or creatine ingestion. The creatine was consumed in five-gram doses, four times per day (20 grams total per day). After the five days, the placebo-group athletes achieved no gains in muscle power, but creatine ingesters boosted muscle strength considerably during all five bouts of exercise.
Loading Strategies
Roger Harris, Professor of Sports Science at the University College of Chichester indicates that the traditional dosage of 20 gram per day, in 5 gram doses, may not be the most cost effective method. This amount of creatine (5 grams) cannot be picked up all at once by the muscles and as much as two-thirds can end up in the kidneys to be expelled in your urine. Meat products are natural dietary sources of creatine and a pound of raw beef contains about 1.8 grams. When we eat meat the creatine is absorbed gradually into the muscles with very little being lost in the urine. Perhaps the approach is to take small amounts of creatine and to mix it with other food. Research has shown that taking 3 grams of creatine a day over a 30 day period produces about as much creatine storage as a 20 gram/day strategy. It is also considered that the 3 gram/day strategy will reduce the amount of water retention and weight gain. To reduce cost, minimise side effects and yet obtain the benefits from creatine then perhaps a possible strategy to enhance creatine levels is to:
* purchase a basic inexpensive creatine powder
* take a daily dose of 3 grams or so a day over a 30 day period
* take half a gram to a gram at one time sprinkled on your food
A maintenance dose of creatine would probably be about 3 to 4 grams per day and a dose of 9 grams per day could be appropriate for the seven days leading up to a major competition.
Side Effects
Since this page has been available on my web site I have received feedback from a number of athletes who have experienced negative side effects whilst taking creatine. They have experienced:
* a significant increase in muscle swelling due to the storage of more water around the muscles - this has the potential to increase the chances of injury, especially between muscle and tendon connections
* leg tendons (calf) have tightened up considerably and with reduced circulation, restricted by the swelling in the calf muscle, has led to numb feet
* Nausea
* Cramp possibly due to water retention
* Dizziness if excessive quantities taken
* Diarrhoea
If you experience these side effects then possible solutions may be:
* to use a very small quantity (3 grams) maybe every other day
* not to use creatine
Source
Creatine is both made by the body (from amino acids arginine, glycine and methionine) and gained from the diet. It occurs naturally in meats and fish. An athlete who is a big meat eater may have in his muscle five grams of creatine per kilogram of muscle, which is near the upper limit. This same athlete must take in approximately 2.5g of creatine per day to replace the natural degradation of creatine that takes place each day.
If you were to survey athletes you would find that there would be a wide variation in creatine content with some athletes having as little as three grams per kilogram of muscle, especially vegetarians and those people who are less active in sport. Those with low creatine content may be at a disadvantage since creatine has been described as the oil of the muscle engine that makes the muscle work more efficiently. Since very few athletes are at the top end of the scale (4.5- 5g/kg) supplementation will help to increase the creatine content in the muscles.
How much?
Much of the early work was based on supplementing creatine in five gram doses, four times a day for five days, then using two to three grams per day to maintain the enhanced levels. Studies based upon this level of supplementation observed rises in muscle creatine that resulted in an increased power output of about 5 - 7 per cent, presumably due to enhanced phosphocreatine levels. Manufacturers will claim significant increases in performances but in my experience, the increases are varied, from no effect at all to very significant increases.
Those at the bottom end of natural creatine muscle content will benefit the most whereas those at the upper end of the scale will have no benefit since it appears impossible to increase very high levels of creatine in the muscle. Perhaps those athletes who eat very low amounts (or none) of fish and meat will be the ones who benefit the most. Vegetarians who supplement with creatine may experience significant improvements. Athletes in the explosive events (sprints, jumps, throws) are likely to experience the most improvement but in the middle distance events in which phosphocreatine plays a small but important role the benefit of creatine supplementation has yet to be finally established. Latest research points to the body being unable to absorb large amounts of creatine into the muscle and it appears that five gram intakes will largely find their way into the urine rather than into the muscle.
It is now recommended that two to three gram intakes four times a day for 10 days will lead to less being eliminated in the urine, or a regime of three gram twice a day for 20 days may he equally beneficial. After such 'loading' intakes, a maintenance dose of perhaps only two gram per day is needed. For best effects, creatine should not be taken all year round and periods of no supplementation should be included in the annual cycle. To bring about a rapid elevation in the muscle creatine content, supplementation is best taken either before or after training itself. At other times of the day creatine should be co-ingested with a source of carbohydrate that is effective in elevating blood insulin levels, e.g. a Mars bar. There appears to be no long term effect in taking creatine supplements although it must be pointed out that the longest study, thus far is for only one-and-a-half' years.
Side effects
Since creatine is a natural component of the human diet athletes would therefore encounter creatine in the normal diet on a daily basis throughout their lives and there should be no harmful side effects. There appear to be some problems experienced by a minority of sprinters when loading with creatine in the form of muscle cramps and this may be related to the amount of the creatine supplemented. Athletes must experiment with the amount of creatine they need - more is not necessarily better and 'less may be best' in certain individuals.
Conclusion
Creatine, introduced and established in the nineties, will be with us into the next century, but further studies are needed to prove just how beneficial it is to athletes and in which events. The current advertising by commercial producers of creatine almost certainly exaggerates the benefits of creatine but it appears that some, if not all, adult athletes will benefit from creatine supplementation.
Creatine boosts muscle power
Investigations at the University of Nottingham show that five days of creatine supplementation can boost muscle power and performance during intense strength training ("Creatine Ingestion and Exercise Performance", International Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 14, p. 297, 1993). In the Nottingham study, 12 athletes carried out five bouts of 30 maximal contractions of the quadriceps muscles before and after five days of placebo or creatine ingestion. The creatine was consumed in five-gram doses, four times per day (20 grams total per day). After the five days, the placebo-group athletes achieved no gains in muscle power, but creatine ingesters boosted muscle strength considerably during all five bouts of exercise.
Loading Strategies
Roger Harris, Professor of Sports Science at the University College of Chichester indicates that the traditional dosage of 20 gram per day, in 5 gram doses, may not be the most cost effective method. This amount of creatine (5 grams) cannot be picked up all at once by the muscles and as much as two-thirds can end up in the kidneys to be expelled in your urine. Meat products are natural dietary sources of creatine and a pound of raw beef contains about 1.8 grams. When we eat meat the creatine is absorbed gradually into the muscles with very little being lost in the urine. Perhaps the approach is to take small amounts of creatine and to mix it with other food. Research has shown that taking 3 grams of creatine a day over a 30 day period produces about as much creatine storage as a 20 gram/day strategy. It is also considered that the 3 gram/day strategy will reduce the amount of water retention and weight gain. To reduce cost, minimise side effects and yet obtain the benefits from creatine then perhaps a possible strategy to enhance creatine levels is to:
* purchase a basic inexpensive creatine powder
* take a daily dose of 3 grams or so a day over a 30 day period
* take half a gram to a gram at one time sprinkled on your food
A maintenance dose of creatine would probably be about 3 to 4 grams per day and a dose of 9 grams per day could be appropriate for the seven days leading up to a major competition.
Side Effects
Since this page has been available on my web site I have received feedback from a number of athletes who have experienced negative side effects whilst taking creatine. They have experienced:
* a significant increase in muscle swelling due to the storage of more water around the muscles - this has the potential to increase the chances of injury, especially between muscle and tendon connections
* leg tendons (calf) have tightened up considerably and with reduced circulation, restricted by the swelling in the calf muscle, has led to numb feet
* Nausea
* Cramp possibly due to water retention
* Dizziness if excessive quantities taken
* Diarrhoea
If you experience these side effects then possible solutions may be:
* to use a very small quantity (3 grams) maybe every other day
* not to use creatine
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